Problematic Social Media Use and its relationship with Cyber Victimization and Cyberbullying Perpetration
Systematic Review Article
Problematic Social Media Use and its relationship with Cyber Victimization and Cyberbullying Perpetration
Pooja Bista,1 Anju S. Nair,2 Nitin Anand,3 Manoj Kumar Sharma,4 Anamika Sahu5, Rajesh Kumar,6 Ravikesh Tripathi7
1,2*Research Scholar, Service for Healthy Use of Technology (SHUT) Clinic, Department of Clinical Psychology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIM- HANS), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
3Additional Professor of Clinical Psychology, Consultant, SHUT Clinic, Department of Clinical
Psychology, NIMHANS, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
4Professor of Clinical Psychology, Consultant In-charge, SHUT Clinic, Department of Clinical
Psychology, NIMHANS, Bengaluru, Karnataka
5,6,7Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychology, NIM-HANS,
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Address for Correspondence: Email:nitinanand19800@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Objectives: The increased use of the internet and social media, problematic social media use (PSMU), cyberbullying perpetration (CBP), and cyberbullying victimization (CV) have emerged as significant concerns in the digital world. Since there is a lack of agreement on the operational definitions of these phenomena, there is a paucity of research on these variables. Although the earlier studies have attempted to establish the incidence and relationship of these variables independently, there has been limited work on outlining the processes underlying the association between PSMU and cyberbullying perpetration and cyberbullying victimization. Objectives: In this review, we attempted to review the relational pathways between the outlined phenomena to develop a better understanding and to facilitate an impetus toward the development of preventive interventions. The objectives of the present study were to 1) review the prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics of PSMU, CBP, and CV and 2) explore the underlying pathways of PSMU, CBP, and CV and their implications on mental health. Methods: We evaluated studies published after 2010 that explored PSMU and its relation to cyber-bullying behaviours. Three reviewers conducted a literature search using Google Scholar and EBSCO Indexing systems. Both primary and secondary research utilizing quantitative and qualitative methods were included. Results: The association between PSMU and cyberbullying perpetration is direct as well as driven by a number of mediating and moderating factors such as time spent online on social media networking sites, age, gender, risky online behaviours, and the presence of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, among others. Past victimization experience predicts cyberbullying perpetration through revenge motives and negative affect regulation. The relationship between PSMU and cyberbullying behaviors is therefore far more intricate and dynamic, having an adverse impact on individuals’ mental health. Conclusion: Social media networking is increasing at an alarming rate among adolescents and young adults and with it comes the risk of PSMU. Excessive spending of time on social media networking sites increases the risk of cyber victimization experiences and cyberbullying perpetration behaviours. There appears to be a significant need to explore the complex relationships between PSMU. CV, CBP, and mental health conditions. Intervention programs need to be designed for the prevention of cyberbullying behaviours and to develop mechanisms for overcoming experiences of cyber victimization.
Keywords: Problematic social media use, Cyberbullying perpetration, Cyberbullying victimization, Depression
INTRODUCTION
Globally, social media use is on the rise. These platforms are increasingly being used for com- munication, socialization, transactions, shopping, and entertainment. Just like how Theodore Levitt quoted; “Anything in excess is a poison”, the massive increase in social media usage has also turned problematic. To date, there hasn’t been any consensus on the definition of Problematic social media use (PSMU). It is considered to be the excessive consumption of social media platforms that causes adverse psychological and social outcomes which are detrimental to the user’s personal, occupational, and/or social functioning (Cataldo et al., 2022). While some authors consider problematic social media use (PSMU) similar to addictive disorders (Andreassen, 2015a; Henzel & Håkansson, 2021; Li et al., 2016), others believe it should be treated as a compensatory or coping mechanism that an individual adopts to deal with life stressors (Carbonell & Panova, 2017; Singh et al., 2020). DSM 5’s section III includes Internet Gaming Disorder as the condition for further study (APA_DSM-5-Internet-Gaming-Disorder.Pdf, n.d.), but ICD 11 includes Gaming disorder in its classification (Gaming Disorder, n.d.). As outlined in Li et al. (2016), problematic internet use can display signs and symptoms such as (a) higher than intended usage; (b) preoccupation; (c) withdrawal-like symptoms such as anxiety, restlessness, negative affect, restlessness etc; (d) tolerance; (e) not being able to stop or reduce usage despite attempting to; (f) craving; (g) losing interest in other activities; (h) continuing to use the web despite potential risks such as using it while driving; (i) using it to escape or alleviate negative emotions; and (j) lying about how much time is spent on it. This criterion is applicable in identification of individuals who engage in problematic social media use.
Nature of Problematic Social Media Use, Cyberbullying Perpetration, Cyber Victimization
Social media use is seen to be related to cyber-victimization in 19% to 45% of countries and to cyber-perpetration in 38% to 86% of countries (Craig et al., 2020). Daily problematic social media use increases the probability of online victimisation or cyber victimization by 30%. Among the problematic users of social media, more than 40% were victims of cyber- violence perpetration (Marttila et al., 2020). Cyber bullying perpetration is one of the common types of cyber violence (Hinduja & Patchin, 2008; Pandita Hakhroo, 2020; Tsitsika et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2021). Describing cyberbullying perpetration is still a contentious issue, similar to many other internet addictive behaviour terminologies. In Tokunaga (2010)’s definition, cyberbullying is any behaviour that uses electronic or digital media to communicate hostile or aggressive messages with the intent of harming or discomforting others. This definition as well as all the ones provided by other authors (Finkelhor et al., 2000, Juvonen and Gross, 2008, Li, 2008, Patchin & Hinduja, 2006, Slonje & Smith, 2008, Smith et al., 2008, Willard, 2007, Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004) have similar features to the definition of traditional bullying (Olweus, 1993) with regard to intention of harming and the imbalance of power. Even when there is an overlap between traditional bullying and cyber- bullying perpetration, it is seen to violate the three fun- damental assumptions of traditional bully- ing; offenders are known to the victims, there is ex- istence of power imbalance and school being the site where bullying occurred (Greene, 2006).
It appears that even when cyberbullying perpetration and traditional bullying share some common ground, cyberbullying perpetration is composed of its own distinctive characteristics (Notar et al., 2013). These characteristics as noted by Smith (2012) include having expertise in technology, the capacity for anonymity, relative distance, complicated bystander roles, status that is obtained or proven indirectly, and difficulty escaping from harassment. The power dy- namics in cyber bullying is different from that of tradi- tional bullying. For individuals who engage only in cyberbullying perpetration, the power is found in their ability to create an online persona, that is most often more aggressive compared to how the offender is in real life, in anonymity (Dooley, Pyzalski, & Cross, 2009; Smith, 2012; Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008) and in technological skills (Dooley, Pyzalski, & Cross, 2009; Smith,2012). Brown et al. (2014) considered cybervictims as those individuals who are on the receiving end of cyberbullying perpetration behaviours. Hence, cyberbullying victimi- zation involves an individual as a victim and cyberbullying perpetration involves an individual as the offender in the offender-victim relationship of cyberbullying (Bai et al., 2021).
Apart from the overlap between cyber- bullying perpetration and offline bullying, it is also seen that there exists an overlap between cyber perpetration and online victimisation or cyber vic- timization. This overlap was reported by 14.9% of 1898 adolescents (Chan & Wong, 2020) and 4.3% of 1285 middle school students (Rice, 2015). Musharraf (2014) also found a strong correlation between online victimization or cyber victimization and online aggression/ cyberbullying perpetration. One explanation for this could be the mediating role played by revenge motives and the other could be that the emotional strain that a victim experience gives rise to frustration and anger, which then leads to them perpetrating online violence (Heirman, 2011).
Hoff Sidney & Mitchell (2009) found that children tend to believe that the school admini- stration would not take their complaint on cyber- violence seriously, which forces them to retaliate and even indulge in physical violence. They engaged in cyberbullying perpetration to cope with their experience, to regulate the negative emotions, and to establish that they were not easy targets.
Problematic Social Media Use, Cyberbullying Perpetration and Cyber Victimization: An Emerging Concern
Problematic internet use (PIU) prevalence estimates ranged from 6% to 9.7% in pre- pandemic meta-analyses (Burkauskas et al., 2022). 98% of the students who participated in a survey in Iran were internet users, of which 21% identified as PIUs. Spending excessive time on internet, history of mental health difficulties and using internet for gaming and chatting increased the risk for PIU (Mazhari, 2012). An Indian study noted an estimate of 47% PIU’s among nursing students (Thirusangu et al., 2020). Problematic social media use is considered to be a subset of Problematic Internet Use (Moretta et al., 2022). A study on adole- scents’ health and wellbeing indicates 7% as problematic social media users (Spotlight on Adolescent Health and Well-Being | HBSC Study, n.d.). The prevalence rate of social media addiction among college students was 2.8% according to Olowu and Seri (2012), while Jafarkarimi and Sim (2016) in their study found 47% are addicted to the use of Facebook. Another study reported 4.5% of adolescents at risk for PSMU (Bányai et al., 2017). Problematic social media use is consistently and strongly associated with both cyberbullying perpetration and victimization (Craig et al., 2020). Marttila et al. (2020) explains that it is not just the number of hours spent online, rather the number of social media networking accounts and the way it is used (active use than passive use), the young age of the victim, contact with strangers, and online political activity that predicts cyber victimization. The lack of agreement on what constitutes and defines cyber violence or cyberbullying perpe- tration and cyber victimization makes it difficult to estimate its prevalence. According to a poll held by the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF, 2019) across thirty countries, one in three young people have been bullied online and one-in five reported of skipping school due to it. Reported rates for cyber-victimization vary from 4.8% (Sourander et al., 2010) to 55.3% (Dilmaç 2009) across different age groups. Cyber violence is very common among school students. Li (2006), in his study, found that more than half the sample knew someone with the experience of being bullied online, a quarter of them were victims themselves in school, and one in six students were cyberbullying perpetrators. Surveyed rates of 8.6% were reported among college students (Schenk & Fremouw, 2012). Around 11% of the youth reported that they have engaged in online bullying or cyber-bullying perpetration, 29% were cyber victims and 49% were online bystanders (Hinduja & Patchin, 2006).
The common electronic methods used by cyber bullies (Wong-Lo & Bullock, 2011) include (i) emails (sending threatening messages and forwarding a private email to everyone, thus hu- miliating the original sender in public), (ii) chatrooms (sites on the internet where people post negative comments), (iii) websites for voting and rating (A website where the cyber bullies upload photos of the victim so that users can rate the victim’s physical appearance or personality), (iv) Instant/text messaging (Using mobile devices, cyber bullies send text messages to targets that contain offensive remarks and insults, revealing the text to many before sending it to the victim), (v) photoshopping (A tool used to edit images or photos; cyberbullies can use it to edit victims’ photos and generate new ones with objectionable features) and (vi) sexting (The texting and exchange of messages and images with sexual content).
The increasing rates of PSMU and cyber- bullying perpetration clearly point at the emerg- ing concern of this issue among adolescents and young adults. Additionally, both are associated with potentially detrimental consequences on mental health. Till now most researchers have independently explored these variables and their associations. An understanding of how the PSMU contributes to cyberbullying victimization and cyberbullying perpetration will enable us in creating insights to the need for developing preventive interventions for the vulnerable population. In this article, we review the literature to determine the processes underlying this connection of PSMU with CBP and CV.
METHODS
A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar and EBSCO. Three reviewers (S. Nair, Bista, and Anand) independently screened abstracts for eligibility. Both primary and secondary research was included which utilized one or both of qualitative and quantitative methods. There was no restriction on study design and studies on all developmental groups were included in the context of PSMU, cyberbullying perpetration, and cyber victimization behaviours.
To identify peer-reviewed journal articles, we conducted abstract search using keywords rele- vant to the study variables. Due to lack of consensus in defining cyberbullying, we’ve included studies which have conceptualized cyberbullying as having at least following three compo- nents: 1) Use of electronic media, 2) communication of hostile or aggressive messages, and 3) intent to harm (in line with Tokunaga’s (2010) definition). We searched for studies utilizing closely-related terms such as “cyberviolence”, “cyber-aggression”, “cyber- bullying offending”, “cyberbullying perpetra- tion”, “cyberbullying victimization”, and “cyber- victimization”. We excluded research which limited their focus to cyberstalking, cyber- harassment, and other cyber-crimes. For problematic social media use, we searched using keywords such as “PSMU”, “social media addiction”, “internet use addiction”, “problematic internet use,” “SNS”, and “social network sites.” Inclusion of conceptually-similar and closely- related terms ensured that we were not missing out on the essence of the inter-relations among variables and eliminating studies that did not address the study objectives. Additionally, in order to explore their relevance to mental health outcomes, we used keywords such as “mental health,” “depression,” “anxiety,” “stress,” “loneliness,” and “self-esteem.”
The inclusion criteria for review were: 1) articles published after 2010, 2) published in English language. However, we’ve included seminal studies and theoretical frameworks published before 2010 as well as those limited to a particular geo-political or ethnic group. Following structure was used to guide the review in the context of PSMU and cyberbullying behaviour: 1) Introduction to PSMU, cyber- bullying perpetration, cyber-victimization; 2) Prevalence of PSMU, cyberbullying perpetra- tion, cyber-victimization; 3) Socio-demographic characteristics and PSMU, cyberbullying perpe- tration, and cyber-victimization; 4) Interplay between PSMU, cyberbullying perpetration, cyber-victimization; 5) Negative mental health outcomes of PSMU, cyberbullying perpetration, and cyber-victimization and 6) Strategies for prevention of cyberbullying perpetration.
DISCUSSION
Demographic Characteristics: Problematic Social Media Use and Cyberbullying Perpetration
The studies investigating gender differences in PSMU have shown mixed findings. While some report that males are more likely to be addicted to social networking sites (Cam & Isbulan, 2012), others found PSMU to be more prevalent among females (Childs & West, 2021). A few have also suggested inconsistent findings (Andreassen, 2015). Similar findings have been noted with cyberviolence. Some studies have reported greater prevalence of cyber perpetration among males (Li, 2006., Sourander et al., 2010; Yudes et al., 2020) and cyber-victimization among females (Guo, 2016; Sourander et al., 2010). Studies exploring gender differences in cyberviolence, however, seem to be inconsistent (Hinduja & Patchin, 2008; Li, 2010; Macdon- ald & Roberts-Pittman, 2010; Slonje & Smith, 2008., Smith et al., 2008., Topcu, Erdur-Baker, & Capa-Aydin, 2008; Varjas, Henrich, & Meyers, 2009., Williams and Guerra, 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004).
When we consider age, the trajectory of cyberbullying behaviours shows an initial increase from adolescence to emerging adulthood followed by a decline for the later age groups (Barlett & Chamberlin, 2017). From a develop- mental perspective, females are more likely than males to be cyberbully perpetrators during early adolescence whereas males are more likely to per- petrate during later adolescence (Barlett & Coyne, 2014). Even among the emerging adult population, cyberbullying behaviours are commonly experienced (Gibb & Devereux, 2016, 2014), with younger emerging adults more commonly engaging in cyberbullying perpetra- tion than their older counterparts (Balakrishnan, 2015; Kircaburun et al., 2019).
Problematic Social Media Use: Its Connection to Cyber Victimization and Cyberbullying Perpetration
Several studies have consistently shown a positive association between PSMU and cyberbullying behaviours (Craig et al., 2020). Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and chat rooms are some of the common social media sites on which cyberbullying perpetration is prevalent (Whittaker & Kowalski, 2014). Studies have also consistently shown that more time spent online means more chances of engaging in cyberbullying perpetration behaviours (Balakrishnan, 2015). In other words, as the time spent on social media increases so does the chance of either engaging in cyberbully perpetration or becoming cyber victimized.
However, the relationship between PSMU and cyberbullying behaviours is not limited to the usage and/or frequency of PSMU as it becomes more complex with the inclusion of other mediating and moderating factors. A number of studies have also suggested significant gender differences in the pathways to cyber- bullying behaviours (Kapitany-Foveny, 2022). For instance, while frequency of social media usage significantly predicted cyberbullying perpetra- tion behaviours in females, it was the risky use of the internet that predicted cyber-bullying perpetration in males (Erdur-Baker, 2010). Further suggesting that internalizing symptoms in females and externalizing symptoms in males tend to be potential risk factors for both engaging in PSMU and cyberbullying perpetra- tion behaviours (Brighi, Menin, Skrzypiec, & Guarini, 2019). Depression is one such internaliz- ing symptom which, irrespective of the gender, has been found to predict both PSMU and cyberbullying perpetration behaviours (Kircaburun et al., 2019). This could be explai- ned by the social compensation theory (McKenna & Bargh, 2000) wherein individuals resort to the internet and social media use for social inter- action and for building social connections as these individuals struggle to engage in face-to- face social interactions. The in-person interac- tions become difficult for these individuals as they may be experiencing social anxiety or are introverted, shy and lack skills for initiating and maintaining social relationships. Thus, spending more time on social media sites increases the risk for either engaging in cyberbullying perpetration or cyber-victimization.
Furthermore, the likelihood of being a perpetrator of cyberbullying is also associated with being a victim (Kowalski et al., 2014, Wright & Li, 2013). The overlap between perpetrators and victims can be explained by the role inversion hypothesis (Mishna et al., 2012) in which victims in offline setting adopt the role of a bully online and vice versa for the bullies. Hence, to offer a perspective on a likely pathway to cyber perpetration, it is likely that individuals who are already experiencing depressive sympto- matology and/or have deficits to engage in face- to-face social interactions transition to spending excessive time on social media networking sites which likely increases the likelihood to be victimized online due to poor social skills and/or through PSMU. These cyber-victims then may adopt the role of a cyber-bully/cyber perpetrator due to revenge motive, anger ruminations, and poor regulation of negative affect. This may further maintain the vicious cycle of PSMU, cyber victimization and cyberbullying perpetra- tion in individuals suffering from depressive symptoms. Needless to say, pathways of cyber- bullying perpetration and cyber-victimization are dynamic and warrant further investigation, especially in the context of depression and other mental health conditions.
Problematic Social Media Use, Cyberbullying Victimization, Cyberbullying Perpetration and Mental Health Implications
As risky use of and more time spent on social media networking sites increases the likelihood of being a cyber bully and/or a victim online, it is not surprising that negative mental health outcomes are strongly associated with both PSMU and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization behaviours. The meta-analytic review by Huang (2020) revealed that PSMU had a negative impact on the self-esteem of males while another survey additionally showed high levels of depressive symptoms in adolescents at risk for social media use (Banyai et al., 2017). There is strong evidence for PSMU and depre- ssion, anxiety (Shannon et al., 2022), insomnia (Malaeb et al., 2020), reduced social support in real life (Meshi & Ellithorpe, 2021), and comorbid psychiatric disorders (Hussain & Griffiths, 2018). Problematic internet use, which subsumes PSMU, was significantly associated with developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depressive disorders, and a greater level of disturbance in sleep (Restrepo et al., 2020).
With respect to the relation between cyber- bullying behaviours and negative mental health out-comes, there is more evidence for cyber victimization than for perpetration. Previous cyberbullying victimization experiences has been found to be significantly associated with depres- sion, anxiety (Landstedt and Persson, 2014; Mitchell et al., 2016), psychological distress (Takizawa, Maughan, & Arseneault, 2014), suicidal ideation, substance abuse (Bauman, Toomey, & Walker, 2013), and low self-esteem (Singh & Sonkar, 2013). On the other hand, evidence for cyberbullying perpetration either suggests no significant impact on mental health variables (Hill et al., 2017; Musharraf & Anis- ul-Haque, 2018) or lesser impact in comparison to cyber victimization (Cassidy, Faucher, & Jackson, 2013) while a few suggest mental health consequences for both the groups (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010).
It is likely that individuals who’re already experiencing mental health issues are more vulnerable to engaging in PSMU and cyber- bullying behaviours. The internalizing and externalizing symptoms such as impulsivity and reduced self-esteem along with poor self- awareness and inadequate social skills may further lead to adverse mental health conse- quences. Through the pathways discussed earlier, these individuals may either continue to be cyberbullied or subsequently engage in online perpetration.
Strategies for Prevention of Cyberbullying Perpetration
A number of studies have reviewed strategies and programs for prevention of cyberbullying perpetration behaviours ranging from intra- personal to macro level (e.g., Chisholm, 2014). At the individual level, it is important that indivi- duals are aware and have adequate knowledge about healthy use of technology. Hence, aware- ness about the consequences of cyberbullying, emphasis on potential harm to self and others, discretion in sharing private information, and safe use of internet are some of the components that can be incorporated as part of psychoeducation. The Media Heroes program (Schultze-Krumbholz, Zagorscak, & Scheithauer, 2018) is a manualized school-based intervention that not only targets at the individual, classroom, and family level but also guides “trainers” such as the police and the teachers to further implement in their workplace settings. It is theoretically rooted at the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and targets individuals’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control through education, group- based activities, and skills training.
The systematic and meta-analytic reviews on various program interventions for reducing cyberbullying perpetration behaviours have identified multiple components (Hutson, Kelly, & Militello, 2017) and it is not surprising that almost 80% of those programs have some elements of skill-building (Polanin et. al, 2021). For instance, PREDEMA (Programa de Educación Emocional para Adolescentes or Program of Emotional Education for Adole- scents; Schoeps, Vil- lanueva, Prado Gasco, & Montoya-Castilla, 2018) is one such intervention program originally designed for 12–15-year-old early middle school adolescents. It was concep- tualized that having adequate emotional compe- tencies such as, identification of one’s emotions and regulation of negative emotions would not only prevent bullying behaviours but also work as a protective factor against the adverse conse- quences of victimization, both in online and offline formats.
Empathy training is also an important com- ponent that is incorporated in intervention programs as a preventative measure (Salem et al., 2023; Hutson, Kelly, & Militello, 2017). This could possibly be because of the perpetrators’ perception that their behaviour does not bear any harm on the target/cyber victim (Shapka, 2011) which further maintains cyberbullying perpetration. Ang and Goh (2010) noted gender differences in affective and cognitive empathy in the context of cyberbullying perpetration and stressed that empathy training for girls should focus on affective aspects while for boys, cogni- tive aspects should be emphasized. Studies on pathways to cyberbullying perpetration beha- viours have shown males and females to also differ on factors other than empathy towards the victim such as help-seeking, attitude towards risks associated with internet use, and impulsivity (e.g., Kapitany-Foveny, 2022). Hence, it is suggested that the interventions for cyberbullying perpetration be gender-informed and take these factors into consideration. These factors may work as a protective cushion against the adverse consequences of cyberbullying perpetration behaviours.
At the global level, UNICEF (“Cyber- bullying: What is it and how to stop it,” n.d.) has initiated a campaign in collaboration with cyberbullying experts and social media platforms to bring awareness about cyberbullying perpetration and the ways to deal with it. Talking to a trusted adult, calling a helpline number, and using privacy settings on social media handles are some of the suggestions provided on the campaign website.
Despite recent advancements in strategies for prevention of cyberbullying perpetration, most of the programs have focused primarily on schools and school-going students. It warrants fur- ther investigation into cyberbullying behaviours of developmental age groups other than school-going students as well as develop- ment of intervention programs for settings beyond the school. For example, psychoeducation, peer learning, anti-bullying policies, training stake- holders at all levels of the organization are some of the strategies that can be explored.
CONCLUSION
Social media usage is at an all-time high, and this trend does not appear to be slowing down anytime soon. In our paper, we explored the relationship between problematic social media use, cyber bullying perpetration and cyber bullying victimization. While spending more time on social media increases the risk for engaging in cyberbullying perpetration behaviours or becoming victimized online, this relationship appears to be more complex than it seems. The association between PSMU and cyberbullying is driven by factors other than just the time spent online such as age, gender, risky online behaviours, and the presence of internalising and externalising symptoms among others. Moreover, past cyber victimization experiences are seen to predict cyber bullying perpetration through revenge motives and negative affect regulation. Due to the roles played by these mediating and moderating factors, the relationship between problematic social media use, cyberbullying victimization, and cyberbullying perpetration is therefore far more intricate and dynamic. These subsequently have adverse impact on individ- uals’ mental health, maintaining the vicious cycle of PSMU and cyberbullying perpetration. There is an urgent need to focus research on these aspects to comprehend these complex rela- tionships as social media networking is increasing at an alarming rate among adolescents and young adults which has the potential to offer negative experiences to many in the form of cyberbullying victimization and cyberperpetration. In addition, the prevention programs need to be designed which focus on developing emotional and social competencies in an adequate manner for the adolescent and young adult populations. Such programs would be most beneficial to be implemented at the school and institutions of higher learning which will likely not only prevent cyberbullying behaviours but also work as a protective mechanisms for overcoming victimi- zation experiences.
Footnotes:*Both authors have contributed equally to the manuscript
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